June 9, 2024

Cash Reserve Ratio is one of the many monetary policy tools that RBI uses to control the money supply in the economy. RBI is the central bank of our country which manages the money supply to various other commercial banks, NBFCs and other lenders, which ultimately supply money to the rest of the country. The Cash Reserve Ratio or CRR is a crucial financial instrument set by the central banks of any country. It influences the flow of money in the market and even controls inflation. When the CRR rises, banks must stash more funds with the central bank, curbing their lending and investment capabilities. Conversely, when the CRR drops, banks release funds, fostering more lending and potentially boosting inflation What is the Cash Reserve Ratio? the Cash reserve ratio is a certain percentage of cash that all banks have to keep with the RBI as a deposit. This percentage is fixed by the RBI and is changed from time to time by the central bank itself. Currently, the CRR is fixed at 4.50%. This means that for every Rs 100 worth of deposits, the bank has to keep Rs 4.5 with the RBI. Objectives of CRR CRR aids in the control of inflation. In an inflationary climate, the RBI can raise the CRR to deter banks from lending more. CRR also assures that banks have a minimum level of funds available to customers, even in times of high demand. The CRR serves as the loan’s reference rate. Banks cannot offer loans at rates lower than the basic rate for lending. Since the CRR regulates the money supply, it stimulates the economy whenever necessary by lowering the Cash Reserve Ratio. How does Cash Reserve Ratio work When the RBI decides to increase the Cash Reserve Ratio, the amount of money that is available with the banks reduces. This is the RBI’s way of controlling the excess flow of money in the economy. The cash balance that is to be maintained by scheduled banks with the RBI should not be less than 4% of the total NDTL, which is the Net Demand and Time Liabilities. This is done on a fortnightly basis. NDTL refers to the total demand and time liabilities (deposits) that are held by the banks. It includes deposits of the general public and the balances held by the bank with other banks. Demand deposits consist of all liabilities which the bank needs to pay on demand like current deposits, demand drafts, balances in overdue fixed deposits and demand liabilities portion of savings bank deposits. Time deposits consist of deposits that need to be repaid on maturity and where the depositor can’t withdraw money immediately. Instead, he is required to wait for a certain time period to gain access to the funds. This includes fixed deposits, time liabilities portion of savings bank deposits and staff security deposits. The liabilities of a bank include call money market borrowings, certificates of deposit and investment in deposits in other banks. In short, the higher the Cash Reserve Ratio, the lesser is the amount of money available to banks for lending and investing. NDTL = Demand and time liabilities (deposits) with public sector banks and other banks – deposits with other banks (liabilities) How is the Cash Reserve Ratio Calculated? There is no cash reserve ratio formula. In technical terms, CRR is calculated as a percentage of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL). NDTL for banking refers to the aggregate savings account, current account and fixed deposit balances held by a bank. So whatever is the aggregate amount, according to current regulations, 4.50% of the aggregate balances of all these three categories have to be kept with the RBI.  How does CRR affect the economy Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is one of the main components of the RBI’s monetary policy, which is used to regulate the money supply, level of inflation and liquidity in the country. The higher the CRR, the lower is the liquidity with the banks and vice-versa. During high levels of inflation, attempts are made to reduce the flow of money in the economy. For this, RBI increases the CRR, lowering the loanable funds available with the banks. This, in turn, slows down investment and reduces the supply of money in the economy. As a result, the growth of the economy is negatively impacted. However, this also helps bring down inflation. On the other hand, when the RBI wants to pump funds into the system, it lowers the CRR, which increases the loanable funds with the banks. The banks in turn sanction a large number of loans to businesses and industry for different investment purposes. It also increases the overall supply of money in the economy. This ultimately boosts the growth rate of the economy. Difference Between CRR and SLR SLR CRR In the case of SLR, banks are required to hold liquid assets such as cash, government securities, and gold. Banks gain interest on SLR deposits. SLR is used to manage the bank’s credit expansion leverage. It ensures that banks are solvent. In the case of SLR, the securities are held by the banks themselves and must be preserved in the form of liquid assets. The CRR mandates that banks maintain solely cash reserves with the RBI. Banks do not take returns on CRR money. Through CRR, the Central Bank manages liquidity in the banking system. The cash reserve is held by banks with the Reserve Bank of India in CRR. Why is Cash Reserve Ratio changed regularly As per the RBI guidelines, every bank is required to maintain a ratio of their total deposits that can also be held with currency chests. This is considered to be the same as it is kept with the RBI. The RBI can change this ratio from time to time at regular intervals. When this ratio is changed, it impacts the economy. For banks, profits are made by lending. In pursuit of this goal, banks may lend out maximum amounts, to make higher profits

The Kerala government introduced the Dr. MGR Memorial Scheme, popularly known as the Inter-Caste Marriage Scheme, as a progressive effort to encourage social peace and eliminate caste divisions in the state. Couples who qualify under this programme and reside in Kerala but come from different castes are entitled to apply for financial aid of up to Rs. 30,000 as well as other perks including housing and educational subsidies. The programme also offers couples counselling and coaching, as well as legal assistance if necessary. The Kerala Inter-Caste Marriage Scheme promotes intercaste weddings in order to promote inclusion, equality, and social integration, ultimately leading to a more peaceful and just society. Kerala Inter Caste Marriage Scheme Highlights Name Kerala Inter-Caste Marriage Scheme Initiated by Government of Kerala Department Social Justice and Empowerment Department State Kerala Beneficiary Kerala’s Interracial Couple Objective promoting inter-caste marriages and eradicating the harmful mindset that has crept into society Benefits 30,000 Rupees Mode to apply Online/Offline Official website https://edistrict.kerala.gov.in/ Register Marriage at Sub Register Office Inter-caste married couple should get a marriage registration certificate from Sub Register office where the marriage has happened to apply for an inter-caste marriage certificate. The registration certificate will be issued within two weeks from the date of registration. Kerala Inter Caste Marriage Scheme Objective This program efforts to give money and support to couples who decide to wed outside of their caste. The scheme’s primary goals are to promote intercaste unions and oppose caste-based discrimination. Features & Benefits of Kerala Inter Caste Marriage Scheme The introduction of this programme in Kerala intends to empower the underprivileged classes by assuring that people from the backward classes who are needy and destitute won’t have to worry about finding money for their weddings. The Kerala government has decided to provide financial assistance to couples from the SC caste, even in circumstances of inter-caste marriages, in order to address the financial side of marriages. In Kerala, the government provides a single lump amount of Rs. 30,000 to qualifying intercaste married couples as financial assistance. Couples must sign an agreement and submit it to the Local Self Government Institution (LSGI) in order to obtain this sum. The Kerala government, which handles all administrative matters and supplies the required funding for the program’s execution, entirely sponsors it. NGOs and other recognized organizations will work closely with the state government to manage the planning of these marriages. The procedure will be supervised by departmental representatives. Documents Required Ration card Income certificate of both wife and husband Caste certificate of couples Marriage registration certificate (Certificate issued by Sub Registrar’s office) Identity proof such as Aadhaar card or voter ID Kerala inter-caste marriage certificate will be issued 7 days from the date of application.  Eligibility Criteria for Kerala Inter Caste Marriage Scheme The applicants applying for Kerala Inter Caste Marriage Scheme must fulfill the following eligibility criteria: Only legally married couples are eligible for financial help. The couple’s combined annual family income should not be more than Rs. 50,000. The fact that financial aid is only given once should be made clear to couples. The money is meant to be used for things like starting a business, getting a piece of land, or building a house. The LSGIs are in charge of making sure the money is being used for what it is intended for. Couples must submit an application for financial aid within one to two years of their wedding, but no later than one year. Couples who get financial aid are expected to sign a contract and turn it in to the LSGIs. As to the Government’s letter No.-1151/C1/2012/SWD dated 21-06-2012, any delay in requesting financial aid beyond three years of marriage will not be taken into consideration. Intercaste Marriage Certificate Application Fee To apply for an inter-caste marriage certificate through Akshaya centres in Kerala, applicants need to pay Rs.28. (This amount includes all service charges) Inter-caste marriage certificate online application fee is Rs.15. Applying for Inter-caste Marriage Certificate through Akshaya Centers Step 1: Visit Akshaya Centres in the locality. Step 2: Apply for an inter-caste marriage certificate with the help of Akshaya centre service person. Step 3: Pay the fees for application and service charges. Step 4: After submission of application, get a receipt for future reference. Step 5: The applicant will get an SMS regarding the progress of the inter-caste marriage certificate application. Step 6: Once the department receives the application, the applicant will get an SMS as ‘certificate approved’. Once approved,  they can get their digitally signed inter-caste marriage certificate. Applying for Inter-caste Marriage Certificate Online Step 1: Visit Kerala e-District web portal main page. Step 2: Log in to the portal using the e-portal user name and password. Step 3: In the case of a new user, click on the portal user registration link in the main page. Step 4: The page will redirect to the next page, enter all the details for registration. Step 5: After registration, click on the one-time registration button. Step 6: Select duplicate verification. This verification will find out if the applicant has already registered through any Akshaya Centers. Step 7: After successful verification, click on submit button. Enter Certificate Details Step 8: Enter the e-District register number and select certificate type and its purpose. Step 9: Enter the name and all other details. Click on save button to save entered details. Attachment Documents Step 10: In this section, the applicant needs to upload all required documents as said above. Note: The applicant can attach only PDF file. The maximum allowable file size is 100 KB. Make Payment Step 11: After uploading documents, make payment for processing inter-caste marriage certificate. The applicant can make payment by using any of the following: Payment through Debit card or Credit card Payment through Net banking Wallet payment IMPS Cash card prepaid Step 12: After the successful fee payment, the page will be redirected to the next page. From here, the applicant can take a print out of inter-caste certificate receipt and application. Download Inter-caste Marriage Certificate Step 13: Check frequently the status of the application by login to the portal. It will be available in the transaction history

There are several financial incentives exclusively offered to senior citizens in India, as a part of social security and welfare programs. Starting from health to tax benefits, these incentives aim to ease the financial burden of such individuals and make their lives convenient. a senior citizen of the nation if you are 60 years of age or older. You can receive numerous perks as a senior citizen from the government and other financial institutions. However, as a senior citizen, you must apply for a Senior Citizenship Card in order to join in various social security programs and receive the benefits associated with them. What Is Senior Citizen Card? n India, the State Government authorities issue a crucial identification document to individuals upon turning 60 years old. Senior citizen card, serves as an alternative to Aadhaar Card for such individuals. To avail this card, one has to visit either the official website or the ‘Sewa Kendra’ of the state they belong to and submit an application form along with a deposit of Rs.10.  Benefits of Senior Citizen Card Upon holding a senior citizen card, you can avail preferential interest rates at the time of opening a fixed or recurring deposit with a bank or any other financial institution.  By submitting the senior citizen card, an individual above 60 years of age can avail income tax exemption limit of up to Rs. 3 lakh in a financial year.  You can enjoy travel discounts while booking a ticket with a state government-owned bus transport services company or air travel company.  You can avail discounted medical benefits at private hospitals and free medical treatment at state-owned hospitals by showing a senior citizen card.  A senior citizen card enables individuals above 60 years of age to request priority hearing dates at the Indian High Court.  Priority installation and minimal registration charges are provided to senior citizens at the time of applying for MTNL and BSNL connections.  A nominal fee, relatively lower than regular charges, is applicable upon availing services from old age centres.  The card is considered valid everywhere, across the country.  Eligibility Criteria for Senior Citizenship Card You must have an identity card and must be at least 60 years old. The aforementioned conditions must be satisfied in order to register online for a Senior Citizen Identification Card. You must have official documentation proving that you are a state permanent resident. Documents Required for Senior Citizen Card Proof of Identity (Aadhaar Card, Voter ID Card, Driving License, Ration Card, Pension Card, Government-issued Identity Card, Bank Certificate)  Address Proof (Passport, Utility Bills, Rental Agreement, Registered Sale Deed, Bank Passbook)  Proof of Age (Birth Certificate, School Leaving Certificate, PAN Card)  Senior Citizen Card Application Form Visit the official website of National Portal of India. In the search bar type – “senior citizen identity card”. From the redirected page, click on the first link shown to you – “Application Form for Issue of Identity Card to Senior Citizen”. Click on the link and you will be redirected to “Application Form Page”. Select “Application Form for Issue of Identity Card to Senior Citizen” and the application form to apply for senior citizen ID card will be available for download. How to Apply for a Senior Citizen Card? Online  The following is a step-by-step guide on how to apply for a senior citizen card online.  Visit the official National Government Services Portal.  Navigate to your respective state government page from where you will proceed with the registration process. An application form will be displayed on your screen.  Fill in the application with all the required details.  Upload all the supporting documents along with a passport-sized photograph.  Make the required registration payment.  Click on the ‘Submit’ tab.  Offline  Here is a stepwise process that you need to follow with due diligence to successfully apply for a senior citizen card.  Visit your nearest local government party office or the General Tehsildar’s office in your locality.  Consult a party representative and obtain the senior citizen card application form.  Fill it up with the required details and attach the supporting documents. FAQs Who will issue senior citizen cards? State Governments issue Senior citizen Cards to individuals above 60 years of age. Where to apply for a senior citizen card? In case you choose the online mode to apply for a senior citizen card, you need to visit the official National Government Services Portal. On the other hand, you can also apply for a senior citizen card by visiting the General Tehsildar’s office if you opt for the offline mode.  Practice area’s of B K Goyal & Co LLP Income Tax Return Filing | Income Tax Appeal | Income Tax Notice | GST Registration | GST Return Filing | FSSAI Registration | Company Registration | Company Audit | Company Annual Compliance | Income Tax Audit | Nidhi Company Registration| LLP Registration | Accounting in India | NGO Registration | NGO Audit | ESG | BRSR | Private Security Agency | Udyam Registration | Trademark Registration | Copyright Registration | Patent Registration | Import Export Code | Forensic Accounting and Fraud Detection | Section 8 Company | Foreign Company | 80G and 12A Certificate | FCRA Registration |DGGI Cases | Scrutiny Cases | Income Escapement Cases | Search & Seizure | CIT Appeal | ITAT Appeal | Auditors | Internal Audit | Financial Audit | Process Audit | IEC Code | CA Certification | Income Tax Penalty Notice u/s 271(1)(c) | Income Tax Notice u/s 142(1) | Income Tax Notice u/s 144 |Income Tax Notice u/s 148 | Income Tax Demand Notice | Psara License | FCRA Online Company Registration Services in major cities of India Company Registration in Jaipur | Company Registration in Delhi | Company Registration in Pune | Company Registration in Hyderabad | Company Registration in Bangalore | Company Registration in Chennai | Company Registration in Kolkata | Company Registration in Mumbai | Company Registration in India | Company Registration in Gurgaon | Company Registration in Noida | Company Registration in lucknow Complete CA Services CA in Delhi | CA in Gurgaon | CA in Noida | CA in Jaipur | CA Firm in India RERA

The West Bengal state government has established various rules and regulations under the Bengal Excise Act 2012, making it mandatory for restaurants, hotels, and clubs that wish to sell alcohol on their premises to obtain a liquor license.  A liquor license is a document that allows a business to sell alcoholic beverages in a specific location. Those who wish to obtain a liquor license in Bengal can do so by applying on the state’s Excise Directorate’s website which can be accessed through www.excise.wb.gov.in. The excise directorate is in charge of enforcing the law pertaining to the manufacture, production, possession, distribution, transportation, supply, sale, and purchase of liquor and other intoxicants. A liquor license is a document that permits a business to sell alcoholic beverages at a particular place. Liquor license is issued by the Excise Department of the respective state. It is illegal for any individual to manufacture, dispense or sell intoxicating alcohol without a valid state license. The state government has established various rules and regulations under the Bengal Excise Act 2012, making it mandatory to acquire a liquor license for restaurants, hotels, clubs etc. Categories of Liquor License in West Bengal Temporary License ( Valid only for a period of 6 months) This license is valid only for a period of 6 months and is of the following types –  Restaurant-cum-bar license is required for the retail sale of foreign liquor on the premises of any restaurant or associated bar. Hotel-cum-restaurant-cum-bar license is required for the retail sale of foreign liquor on the grounds of any hotel, restaurant, or associated bar. Hotel-cum-Bar license is required for the retail sale of foreign liquor on the grounds of any hotel and related bar. Regular License A regular liquor license is valid for one year from the date it is issued. A liquor license can be renewed a year after it has expired by filling out the renewal application form accessible on the State Excise Department’s website and paying the applicable renewal fee. Eligibility Criteria to Obtain a West Bengal Liquor License The individual should be age twenty-one years or above and should be an India citizen or a Person of Indian Origin (in case of individuals the application can be made by a single individual or multiple individuals jointly). A firm which is regulated by the Indian Partnership Act, 1932. A company which is regulated by the Companies Act, 1956. A society which is registered under the West Bengal Co-operative Act, 1983 or the West Bengal Societies Registration Act, 1961. The following are some of the conditions by which an individual is not eligible for applying for the Liquor license in the State of West Bengal. A person who has been convicted by a criminal court of a non-bailable offence. An existing license holding person who has violated the terms and conditions of his license. A person who was a defaulter in the payment of excise revenue to the State Government. A person who is interested, either directly or indirectly, in the manufacture or sale of any intoxicant in foreign territory or any bordering State of West Bengal. Minimum Requirements for Site Plan The site plan for categories mentioned above like Restaurant-cum-Bar, Hotel-cum-Restaurant-cum-Bar, Hotel-cum-Bar should contain the layout of the site, main entrance, seating arrangements, restrooms, bar counters, foreign liquor store or go down, kitchen etc. Also the same should be duly signed by the applicant and the landlord or owner of the premises. Applicable Fee Restaurant-cum-Bar License: Location of the Site  Non-refundable application fee Monthly nonrefundable fee for temporary bar license Initial Grant Fee Security Deposit (1/3rd of Initial Grant Fee) Fee for Grant of License for the Next period of settlement Panchayat Area  Rs. 8,000  Rs. 5,000  Rs. 3,00,000  Rs. 1,00,000  Rs. 20,000 Municipal / Notified Area Rs. 12,000  Rs. 10,000  Rs. 4,50,000  Rs. 1,50,000  Rs. 40,000 Municipal Corporation Area Rs. 25,000  Rs. 20,000  Rs. 6,00,000  Rs. 2,00,000  Rs. 50,000 Hotel-cum-Restaurant-cum-Bar License (below 3-Star category Hotel): Location of the Site  Non-refundable application fee Monthly nonrefundable fee for temporary bar license Initial Grant Fee Security Deposit (1/3rd of Initial Grant Fee) Fee for Grant of License for the Next period of settlement Panchayat Area Rs. 8,000  Rs. 5,000  Rs. 6,00,000  Rs. 2,00,000  Rs. 30,000 Municipal / Notified Area Rs. 12,000  Rs. 10,000  Rs. 8,00,000  Rs. 2,66,667  Rs. 50,000 Municipal Corporation Area Rs. 25,000  Rs. 20,000  Rs. 10,00,000  Rs. 3,33,334  Rs. 70,000 Hotel-cum-Restaurant-cum-Bar License (below 4-Star category Hotel): Location of the Site  Non-refundable application fee Monthly nonrefundable fee for temporary bar license Initial Grant Fee Security Deposit (1/3rd of Initial Grant Fee) Fee for Grant of License for the Next period of settlement Panchayat Area Rs. 8,000  Rs. 5,000  Rs. 12,50,000  Rs. 4,16,667  Rs. 50,000 Municipal / Notified Area Rs. 12,000  Rs. 10,000  Rs. 15,00,000  Rs. 5,00,000  Rs. 80,000 Municipal Corporation Area Rs. 25,000  Rs. 20,000  Rs. 18,00,000  Rs. 6,00,000  Rs. 1,00,000   Hotel-cum-Restaurant-cum-Bar License ( 5-Star or above category Hotel): Location of the Site  Non-refundable application fee Monthly nonrefundable fee for temporary bar license Initial Grant Fee Security Deposit (1/3rd of Initial Grant Fee) Fee for Grant of License for the Next period of settlement Panchayat Area Rs. 8,000  Rs. 5,000  Rs. 15,00,000  Rs. 5,00,000  Rs. 15,00,000 Municipal / Notified Area Rs. 12,000  Rs. 10,000  Rs. 20,00,000  Rs. 6,66,667  Rs. 15,00,000 Municipal Corporation Area Rs. 25,000  Rs. 20,000  Rs. 25,00,000  Rs. 8,33,334  Rs. 15,00,000 Hotel-cum-Bar License: Location of the Site  Non-refundable application fee Monthly nonrefundable fee for temporary bar license Initial Grant Fee Security Deposit (1/3rd of Initial Grant Fee) Fee for Grant of License for the Next period of settlement Panchayat Area Rs. 8,000  Rs. 5,000  Rs. 6,00,000  Rs. 2,00,000  Rs. 30,000 Municipal / Notified Area Rs. 12,000  Rs. 10,000  Rs. 8,00,000  Rs. 2,66,667  Rs. 50,000 Municipal Corporation Area Rs. 25,000  Rs. 20,000  Rs. 10,00,000  Rs. 3,33,334  Rs. 70,000 Retail beer, wine and low alcoholic beverage (LAB) license for consumption off the premises from existing Departmental Stores: Location of the Site  Non-refundable application fee Monthly nonrefundable fee for temporary bar license Initial Grant Fee Security Deposit

A digital signature—a type of electronic signature—is a mathematical algorithm routinely used to validate the authenticity and integrity of a message (e.g., an email, a credit card transaction, or a digital document). Digital signatures create a virtual fingerprint that is unique to a person or entity and are used to identify users and protect information in digital messages or documents. In emails, the email content itself becomes part of the digital signature. Digital signatures are significantly more secure than other forms of electronic signatures. What is a digital signature? Digital signatures have various uses and applications, including financial transactions, software distribution, contract management, and other scenarios where it’s important to authenticate a document while deterring any forgery or tampering. In an age where data breaches are rampant, understanding what a digital signature is can be your first line of defence against cyber threats. A digital signature is a mathematical protocol that uses cryptographic techniques to verify the authenticity and integrity of digital messages or documents. It functions as the digital equivalent of your physical autograph or stamped seal but extends beyond merely imitating your handwritten name on a document. Digital signatures provide far more inherent security to authenticate identities in digital transactions. The key aspects that define digital signatures and their purpose include: Authenticity: A valid digital signature on a document or communication exchange provides the recipient with confidence that the source originated from a known sender. Integrity: Digital signatures indicate that the contents of a given message or document have original integrity and have not been altered in transit. Security: Digital signatures use cryptographic techniques to provide high levels of security and universal acceptance. They are based on the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) standards, which involve using a digital certificate for identity verification. Legal Significance: In many countries, including the United States, digital signatures are used to create a legally binding arrangement or document in the same manner as traditional handwritten signatures. Difference between a Digital Signature and Digital Signature Certificate Digital Signature The Digital Signature is a method of confirming the authenticity of a transaction, document, or message. It guarantees that the sender generates the message/document and is not modified by the external party. Digital Signature Certificate Digital Signature Certificate functions similarly to identification cards issued by recognized (government) authorities. The certificate provides the following security benefits: Details of Certifying Authority   Name & other information of the subscriber Subscriber’s public key DSC validity period How do digital signatures work? Hash function — A hash function (also called a “hash”) is a fixed-length string of numbers and letters generated from a mathematical algorithm and an arbitrarily sized file such as an email, document, picture, or other type of data. This generated string is unique to the file being hashed and is a one-way function— a computed hash cannot be reversed to find other files that may generate the same hash value. Some of the more popular hashing algorithms in use today are Secure Hash Algorithm-1 (SHA-1), the Secure Hashing Algorithm-2 family (SHA-2 and SHA-256), and Message Digest 5 (MD5). Public key cryptography — Public key cryptography (also known as asymmetric encryption) is a cryptographic method that uses a key pair system. One key, called the public key, encrypts the data. The other key, called the private key, decrypts the data. Public key cryptography can be used several ways to ensure confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. Public key cryptography can Ensure integrity by creating a digital signature of the message using the sender’s private key. This is done by hashing the message and encrypting the hash value with their private key. By doing this, any changes to the message will result in a different hash value. Ensure confidentiality by encrypting the entire message with the recipient’s public key. This means that only the recipient, who is in possession of the corresponding private key, can read the message. Verify the user’s identity using the public key and checking it against a certificate authority. Public key infrastructure (PKI) — PKI consists of the policies, standards, people, and systems that support the distribution of public keys and the identity validation of individuals or entities with digital certificates and a certificate authority. Certificate authority (CA) — A CA is a trusted third party that validates a person’s identity and either generates a public/private key pair on their behalf or associates an existing public key provided by the person to that person. Once a CA validates someone’s identity, they issue a digital certificate that is digitally signed by the CA. The digital certificate can then be used to verify a person associated with a public key when requested. Digital certificates — Digital certificates are analogous to driver licenses in that their purpose is to identify the holder of a certificate. Digital certificates contain the public key of the individual or organization and are digitally signed by a CA. Other information about the organization, individual, and CA can be included in the certificate as well. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)/OpenPGP — PGP/OpenPGP is an alternative to PKI. With PGP/OpenPGP, users “trust” other users by signing certificates of people with verifiable identities. The more interconnected these signatures are, the higher the likelihood of verifying a particular user on the internet. This concept is called the “Web of Trust.” Digital signatures work by proving that a digital message or document was not modified—intentionally or unintentionally—from the time it was signed. Digital signatures do this by generating a unique hash of the message or document and encrypting it using the sender’s private key. The hash generated is unique to the message or document, and changing any part of it will completely change the hash. Once completed, the message or digital document is digitally signed and sent to the recipient. The recipient then generates their own hash of the message or digital document and decrypts the sender’s hash (included in the original message) using the sender’s public key. The recipient compares the hash they generate against the sender’s decrypted hash; if they match, the message or digital document has not been modified and